From: [c b siren] at [hopper.unh.edu] (Christopher B. Siren)
Newsgroups: alt.mythology,alt.magick.tyagi,alt.answers,news.answers
Subject: alt.mythology Sumerian Mythology FAQ, ver. 1.8
Date: 4 Oct 1996 13:16:45 GMT
Expires: Tue, 5 November 1996 00:00:00 GMT
Message-ID: <5332nt$[l--d] at [mozz.unh.edu]>
Summary: This posting contains a description of the pantheon
  and cosmology of the Sumerians, who lived in what is now
  southern Iraq over 4000 years ago.  Aspects of Sumerian 
  culture are touched upon as are parallels with Biblical 
  stories.

Archive-name: mythology/sumer-faq
Posting-Frequency: monthly (3rd of the month)
Last-modified: 1996/3/20
Version: 1.8
URL: http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-faq.html

Sumerian Mythology FAQ (Version 1.8)
by Christopher Siren, 1992,1994
[c b siren] at [hopper.unh.edu]
http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren

This FAQ is posted on the third of every month to alt.mythology.
The latest copy of this FAQ is availible via anonymous ftp at:

rtfm.mit.edu at /pub/usenet/news.answers/mythology/sumer-faq

last changes: March 20, 1996: cleaned up some misleading references to Kur.
  March 1, 1996: added the reference to Adapa's 
    dictionary.
  Nov 2, 1995: added some short notes about the primary deities,
    Ninhursag, and the Dilmun/Eden parallel to clarify some issues.  
  Oct 14, 1995: added brief reviews of the sources and related texts.

Adapa (Dan Sullivan) has assembled a more complete Sumerian-English 
dictionary at:

http://webusers.anet-dfw.com/~adapa/Index.html

I have constructed a rudimentary Sumerian-English, English-Sumerian 
glossary using Kramer's _The Sumerians_ and Jacobsen's _Treasures
of Darkness_.  Interested parties may locate it at:
http://pubpages.unh.edu/~cbsiren/sumer-dict or send me email for a 
copy.

note: This FAQ is largely based on an anthropology paper which I wrote in 
1992, using the sources detailed below.

Contents: 
  I. Overview
  II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?
  III. What Deities did they worship?
    A. The Four Primary Dieties
    B. The Seven who decreed fate
    C. The Annuna and others
  IV. What about the Underworld?
  V. What are 'me' anyway?
  VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian
     literature.  What are they?
  VII. Source material
  VIII. Other books of interest.

I. Overview - 

        The religion of the ancient Sumerians has left its mark on the
entire middle east.  Not only are its temples and ziggurats scattered 
about the region, but the literature, cosmogony and rituals influenced 
their neighbors to such an extent that we can see echoes of Sumer in 
the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition today.  From these ancient 
temples, and to a greater extent, through cuneiform writings of 
hymns, myths, lamentations, and incantations, archaeologists and 
mythographers afford the modern reader a glimpse into the religious 
world of the Sumerians.
        Each city housed a temple that was the seat of a major god 
in the Sumerian pantheon, as the gods controlled the powerful 
forces which often dictated a human's fate.  The city leaders had a 
duty to please the town's patron deity, not only for the good will 
of that god or goddess, but also for the good will of the other deities
 in the council of gods.  The priesthood initially held this role, and 
even after secular kings ascended to power, the clergy still held 
great authority through the interpretation of omens and dreams.  
Many of the secular kings claimed divine right; Sargon of Agade, 
for example claimed to have been chosen by Ishtar/Inanna. 
(Crawford 1991: 21-24)
        The rectangular central shrine of the temple, known as a 
'cella,' had a brick altar or offering table in front of a statue of the 
temple's deity.  The cella was lined on its long ends by many 
rooms for priests and priestesses.  These mud-brick buildings were 
decorated with cone geometrical mosaics, and the occasional fresco
with human and animal figures.  These temple complexes eventually 
evolved into towering ziggurats. (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: 119)
        The temple was staffed by priests, priestesses, musicians, 
singers, castrates and hierodules.  Various public rituals, food 
sacrifices, and libations took place there on a daily basis.  There 
were monthly feasts and annual, New Year celebrations.  During 
the later, the king would be married to Inanna as the resurrected 
fertility god Dumuzi, whose exploits are dealt with below.
        When it came to more private matters, a Sumerian remained 
devout.  Although the gods preferred justice and mercy, they had 
also created evil and misfortune.  A Sumerian had little that he 
could do about it. Judging from Lamentation records, the best one 
could do in times of duress would be to "plead, lament and wail, 
tearfully confessing his sins and failings."  Their family god or city 
god might intervene on their behalf, but that would not necessarily 
happen.  After all, man was created as a broken, labor saving, tool 
for the use of the gods and at the end of everyone's life, lay the 
underworld, a generally dreary place. (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: 
pp.123-124)

II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?

        From verses scattered throughout hymns and myths, one can 
compile a picture of the universe's (anki) creation according to the 
Sumerians.  The primeval sea (abzu) existed before anything else 
and within that, the heaven (an) and the earth (ki) were formed.  
The boundary between heaven and earth was a solid (perhaps tin) 
vault, and the earth was a flat disk.  Within the vault lay the gas-like
'lil', or atmosphere, the brighter portions therein formed the stars, 
planets, sun, and moon.  (Kramer, The Sumerians 1963: pp. 112-113) 
Each of the four major Sumerian deities is associated with one of 
these regions.  An, god of heaven, may have been the main god of 
the pantheon prior to 2500 BC., although his importance gradually 
waned.  Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess, 
whose name more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the 
mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave 
birth).  It seems likely that these two were the progenitors of most 
of the gods.

III. What Deities did they worship?
  A. The Primary Deities - It is notable that the Sumerians themselves 
may not have grouped these four as a set and that the grouping has been made 
because of the observations of Sumerologists.  

An
    An, god of heaven, may have been the main god of the pantheon prior
  to 2500 BC., although his importance gradually waned.  It seems likely
  that he and Ki/Ninhursag were the progenitors of most of the gods.
  His primary temple was in Erech.  He and Enlil give various gods,
  goddesses, and kings their earthly regions of influence and their laws.

Ninhursag 
    Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess, whose name
  more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the mountains), Ninmah (the
  exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave birth).  It seems likely
  that she and An were the progenitors of most of the gods.  She is the
  mother goddess and assists in the creation of man.  There she added
  constructive criticism to Enki as he shaped several versions of man
  from the heart of the clay over the Abzu.  In Dilmun, she bore eight
  new trees from Enki.  When he then ate her children, she cursed him
  with eight wounds.  After being persuaded by Enlil to undo her curse,
  she bore Enki eight new children which undid the wounds of the first 
  ones.  Most often she is considered Enlil's sister, but in some traditions
  she is his spouse instead.

Enlil
    An and Ki's union produced Enlil (Lord of 'lil').  Enlil was the air-
  god and leader of the pantheon from at least 2500 BC.  He assumed
  most of An's powers.  He is glorified as "'the father of the gods,'
  'the king of heaven and earth,' ' the king of all the lands'".
  Kramer portrays him as a patriarchal figure, who is both creator and
  disciplinarian.  Enlil effectuates the dawn, the growth of plants, and
  bounty.  He also invents agricultural tools such as the plow.  He is
  also banished to the nether world (kur) for his rape of Ninlil, his
  intended bride, but returns with the first product of their union,
  the moon god Sin (also known as Nanna). (Kramer, Sumerians 1963:
  pp.118-121).  Most often he is considered Ninlil's husband, 
  with Ninhursag as his sister, but some traditions have Ninhursag as 
  his spouse.  (Jacobsen p.105) The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and 
  given to Enki to guard and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, 
  Enki's center of worship.  He helps Enki again when he was cursed by
  Ninhursag.  Enlil and a fox entreat her to return and undo her curse.

Enki
    Contrary to the translation of his name, Enki is not the lord of the
  earth, but of the abzu (the watery abyss and also semen) and of
  wisdom.  This contradiction leads Kramer and Maier to postulate that
  he was once known as En-kur, lord of the underworld, which either 
  contained or was contained in the Abzu.  He did struggle with Kur as 
  mentioned in the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld", 
  and presumably was victorious and thereby able to claim the title 
  "Lord of Kur" (the  realm).  He is a god of water, creation, and 
  fertility.  He also holds dominion over the land.  He is the keeper of 
  the me, the divine laws.  (Kramer & Maier Myths of Enki 1989: pp. 2-3) 
    The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard and 
  impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, his center of worship.  From 
  there, he guards the me and imparts them on the people.  He directs the 
  me towards Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the world with his 
  decrees.  Later, Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been 
  given too little power from his decrees.  In a different text, she gets 
  Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes 
  - a total of ninety-four me.  Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver 
  the me to her cult center at Erech.  Enki recovers his wits and tries 
  to recover the me from her, but she arrives safely in Erech with them. 
  (Kramer & Maier 1989:pp. 38-68)
    Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to rescue Ereshkigal after she
  was given over to Kur.  He is assailed by creatures with stones.  These 
  creatures are sometimes interpreted as Kur itself.  He is friendly to 
  Inanna and rescued her from Kur by sending two sexless beings to 
  negotiate with, and flatter Ereshkigal.  They gave her the Bread of 
  Life and the Water of Life, which restored her.  
    He blessed the paradisiacal land of Dilmun, to have plentiful water
  and palm trees.  With Ninhursag, he created eight new types of trees
  there.  He then consumed these children and was cursed by Ninhursag,
  with one wound for each plant consumed.  Enlil and a fox act on
  Enki's behalf to call back Ninhursag in order to undo the damage. 
  She joins with Enki again and bears eight new children, one to cure
  each of the wounds.  At the direction of his mother Nammu and with
  some constructive criticism from Ninhursag, he created man from
  the heart of the clay over the Abzu.  Several flawed versions were
  created before the final version was made.

III B.
        In addition to the four primary deities, there were hundreds 
of others.  A group of seven "decreed the fates" - these probably 
included the first four, as well as Nanna, his son Utu, the sun god and 
a god of justice, and Nanna's daughter Inanna, goddess of love and war.

Inanna
    Nanna's daughter, goddess of love and war.  Like Enki, Inanna also 
  visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of the Greek seasonal 
  story of Persephone.  She sets out to witness the funeral rites of her
  sister-in-law Ereshkigal's husband Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven.  She
  takes precaution before setting out, by telling her servant Ninshubur
  to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or Enki at their shrines, should
  she not return.  Inanna knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the
  gatekeeper, Neti, questions her.  He consults with queen Ereshkigal and
  then allows Inanna to pass through the seven gates of the underworld.
  After each gate, she is required to remove adornments and articles of
  clothing, until after the seventh gate, she is naked.  The Annuna pass
  judgment against her and Ereshkigal killed her and hung her on the 
  wall.  (see Ereshkigal) (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60)
    Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki.  He creates two 
  sexless creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and 
  thereby gain a gift - Inanna's corpse.  They restore her to life with 
  the Bread of Life and the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld 
  has a conservation of death law.  No one can leave without providing 
  someone to stay in their stead.  Inanna is escorted by galla/demons 
  past Ninshubur and members of her family.  She doesn't allow them to 
  claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his throne in Uruk, (dressed in
  his "me"-robes and not mourning like the others).  With consent, they 
  seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice by transforming himself, with 
  the aid of Utu.  Eventually he is caught and slain.  Inanna spies his 
  sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go to Dumuzi.  She allows 
  Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld only six months of the 
  year, while Geshtinanna will stay the other six. (Wolkstein & Kramer 
  pp. 60-89)  As with the Greek story of the kidnapping of Persephone, 
  this linked the changing seasons, the emergence of the plants from the 
  ground, with the return of a harvest deity from the nether world.  
  (see also Dumuzi) Geshtinanna is also associated with growth, but where 
  her brother rules over the spring harvested grain, she rules over the 
  autumn harvested vines (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168).
    Another important concept in Sumerian theology, was that of me.  (see
  section V.)  The me were universal decrees of divine authority.  They 
  are the invocations that spread arts, crafts, and civilization.  Enki 
  became the keeper of the me. Inanna comes to Enki and complains at 
  having been given too little power from his decrees.  In a different 
  text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts, 
  and attributes - a total of ninety-four me.  Inanna parts company with 
  Enki to deliver the me to her cult center at Erech.  Enki recovers his 
  wits and tries to recover the me from her, but she arrives safely in 
  Erech with them.
  (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-68)

Nanna
    Nanna is another name for the moon god Sin.  He is the product of 
  Enlil's rape of Ninlil.  (Kramer, 1963, pp. 146-7.)  Nanna
  was the tutelary deity of Ur (Kramer 1963 p. 66), appointed as king of 
  that city by An and Enlil.  He established Ur-Nammu as his mortal
  representative, establishing the third Ur dynasty.  Nanna was married 
  to Ningal and they produced Inanna and Utu.  He rests in the Underworld 
  every month, and there decrees the fate of the dead.  He averts a flood 
  of his city by visiting Enlil in Nippur on a boat loaded with gifts and
  pleading with him.  He refuses to send aid to Inanna when she is 
  trapped in the underworld.

Utu 
    Son of Nanna and Ningal, god of the Sun and of Justice, Utu goes to
  the underworld at the end of every day and while there decrees the fate
  of the dead.  He aided Dumuzi in his flight from the galla demons by
  helping him to transform into different creatures.  He opened the 
  "ablal" of the Underworld for Enkidu, to allow him to escape, at the 
  behest of Enki.  Through Enki's orders, he also brings water up from 
  the earth in order to irrigate Dilmun, the garden paradise, the place
  where the sun rises.  He does not help Inanna when she has difficulties
  with her huluppu-tree.

III. C. The Annuna
  At the next level were fifty "great gods", possibly the same as the 
Anunna, although several gods confined to the underworld are 
specifically designated Anunna, An's children. (Kramer 1963: 
pp. 122-123).

Ninlil 
    Ninlil was the intended bride of Enlil.  Enlil raped her and was
  then banished to the nether world (kur).  She follows him to the 
  nether world, where she gives birth to the moon god Sin (also known as
  Nanna).  They have three more children in the nether world who remain
  there so that Sin may be allowed to leave.  (Kramer, Sumerians 1963:
  pp.146-7).  Her chief shrine was in the Tummal district of Nippur.  In 
  texts she is Enlil's sister and Ninhursag is his wife.

Nammu
    Nammu is the Goddess of the watery abyss and is Enki's mother.  She
  instructs him on how, with the help of Nimmah/Ninhursag to create man.

Ningal 
    She is Nanna's wife and the mother of Inanna and Utu.  She begs and 
  weeps before An and Enlil for them not to flood her city, Ur.

Ereshkigal 
    Ereshkigal is the queen of the underworld, who is either given to Kur
  in the underworld or given dominion over the underworld in the prelude 
  to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld".  She has a palace there and is 
  due a visit by those entering Kur.  When Inanna trespassed on her domain, 
  Ereshkigal: 

        ..fastened on Inanna the eye of death.
        She spoke against her the word of wrath.
        She uttered against her the cry of guilt

        She struck her.

        Inanna was turned into a corpse,
        ..And was hung from a hook on the wall.( Wolkstein & Kramer 1983
         p. 60)

  She was married to Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven.  

Nidaba - the goddess of writing and the patron deity of the edubba 
  (palace archives).

Ninisinna (Nininsinna) - patron goddess of the city Isin.  She is the
  "hierodule of An"

Dumuzi (demigod)
    He has a palace in Kur, and is due a visit by those entering Kur.  He
  is Inanna's husband.  In life, he was the shepherd king of Uruk.  He
  successfully courted and married Inanna.   Following the consummation 
  of this marriage, he was given divine powers over the fertility of 
  plants and animals, especially over grain. Upon her rescue from the 
  dead, he was found on his throne in his "me"-robes.  Inanna named him
  as her substitute for the underworld.  He was pursued by galla demons, 
  which he eluded for a time with the aid of Utu.  Eventually he was 
  caught and slain; however, he was partially freed from his stay in the 
  underworld by the actions of his sister Geshtinanna.  Now he resides 
  there only half of the year, while she lives there the other half year; 
  this represents seasonal change (see Inanna and Geshtinanna).  He is 
  also known as Tammuz.

Gilgamesh (demigod)
    After his adventures, he is given a palace in the nether world and
  venerated as lesser god of the dead.  It is respectful to pay him a
  visit upon arrival.  If he knew you in life or is of your kin he may
  explain the rules of Kur to you.  (see Enkidu)

Geshtinanna (demigoddess)
    She is Dumuzi's sister.  After his death, she visited him in the
  underworld with Inanna, and was allowed to take his place there for six
  months out of the year.  Her time in the underworld and her periodic
  emergence from it are linked with her new divine authority over the
  autumn vines and wine. (see also Inanna, Dumuzi)

Gugalanna 
  The Bull of Heaven, Ereshkigal's husband.

Kur 
    Kur is the name of underworld, the area which either contained or was 
  contianed by the Abzu.  Enki also struggled with Kur as mentioned in the 
  prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld", and presumably was 
  victorious and thereby able to claim the title "Lord of Kur" (the 
  realm).  Kramer suggests that Kur was a dragon-like creature, calling 
  to mind Tiamat and Leviathan.  The texts suggests that Enki's struggle 
  may have been with instruments of the land of kur - its stones or its 
  creatures hurling stones.

Enkidu 
    The main body of the Gilgamesh tale includes a trip to the nether-
  world.  Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through a gate, in order to
  recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku, objects of an uncertain nature.
  He broke several taboos of the underworld, including the wearing of
  clean clothes and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff,
  making a noise, or behaving normally towards ones family (Kramer 1963:
  pp. 132-133).  For these violations he was "held fast by 'the outcry of
  the nether world'".  Intervention by Enki, rescued the hero.
 

Gods in Kur with palaces who are due reverence:
  Nergal - Nergal is perhaps the co-ruler of Kur with Ereshkigal, he is
    more prominent in Babylonian literature.
  Namtar
  Hubishag
  Ningishzida - the god of dawn

  Dimpemekug - due gifts, no palace
  the scribe of Kur - due gifts, no palace

The Sumerians had many other deities as well, most of which appear to
have been minor.

IV. What about the Underworld?
  The underworld of the Sumerians is revealed, to some extent, 
by a composition about the death and afterlife of the king and 
warlord Ur-Nammu.  After having died on the battlefield, Ur-
Nammu arrives below, where he offers sundry gifts and sacrifices 
to the "seven gods" of the nether world:

        ..Nergal, [the deified] Gilgamesh, Ereshkigal [the queen of 
        the underworld, who is either given to Kur in the underworld
         or given dominion over the underworld in the prelude to 
        Gilgamesh (Kramer & Maier 1989: p. 83) (Wolkstein & Kramer
         1983: p. 4)] , Dumuzi [the shepherd, Inanna's husband], Namtar,
        Hubishag, and Ningishzida - each in his own palace; he also 
        presented gifts to Dimpimekug and to the "scribe of the nether-
        world."...  [After arriving at his assigned spot] ...certain of 
        the dead were turned over to him, perhaps to be his attendants, 
        and Gilgamesh, his beloved brother, explained to him the rules
        and regulations of the nether world. (Kramer 1963: p. 131)

Another tablet indicates that the sun, moon, and their respective gods, 
spent time in the underworld as well.  The sun journeyed there after 
setting, and the moon rested there at the end of the month.  Both Utu 
and Nanna '''decreed the fate' of the dead" while there.(Kramer 1963:
p. 132)  Dead heroes ate bread, drank, and quenched the dead's thirst
with water.  The gods of the nether world, the deceased, and his city, 
were prayed to for the benefit of the dead and his family.  
        The Sumerian version of Gilgamesh includes a trip to the nether 
world as well.  In the prologue, Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to 
rescue Ereshkigal after she was given over to Kur.  He is assailed by 
creatures with stones.  The main body of the tale includes a trip to 
the nether world as well.  Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through
a gate, in order to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku, objects of 
an uncertain nature.  He broke several taboos of the underworld, 
including the wearing of clean clothes and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying 
a weapon or staff, making a noise, or behaving normally towards ones
family (Kramer 1963: pp. 132-133).  For these violations he was "held 
fast by 'the outcry of the nether world'".  Intervention by Enki, rescued
the hero.
        Inanna also visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of the 
Greek seasonal story of Persephone.  She sets out to witness the funeral 
rites of her sister-in-law Ereshkigal's husband Gugalanna, the Bull of 
Heaven.  She takes precaution before setting out, by telling her servant
Ninshubur to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or Enki at their shrines, 
should she not return.  Inanna knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the 
gatekeeper, Neti, questions her.  He consults with queen Ereshkigal and 
then allows Inanna to pass through the seven gates of the underworld.  
After each gate, she is required to remove adornments and articles of 
clothing, until after the seventh gate, she is naked.  The Annuna pass 
judgment against her and Ereshkigal slays her and hangs her on the wall
(Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60)
  Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki.  He creates two sexless 
creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and thereby gain a 
gift - Inanna's corpse.  They restore her to life with the Bread of Life 
and the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld has a conservation of 
death law.  No one can leave without providing someone to stay in their 
stead.  Inanna is escorted by galla/demons past Ninshubur and members of 
her family.  She doesn't allow them to claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi 
on his throne in Uruk.  They then seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice 
by transforming himself, with the aid of Utu.  Eventually he is caught 
and slain.  Inanna spies his sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go 
to Dumuzi.  She allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld 
only six months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay the other six. 
(Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 60-89)  As with the Greek story of the 
kidnapping of Persephone, this linked the changing seasons, the 
emergence of the plants from the ground, with the return of a harvest 
deity from the nether world.  Although he had always been a shepherd (and 
possibly a mortal king) he was blessed with the powers of fertility 
following the consummation of his marriage to Inanna in The courtship of 
Inanna and Dumuzi. 

        As the farmer, let him make the fields fertile,
        As the shepherd, let him make the sheepfolds multiply, 
        Under his reign let there be vegetation,
        Under his reign let there be rich grain (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 45)

Geshtinanna is also associated with growth, but where her brother rules 
over the spring harvested grain, she rules over the autumn harvested 
vines (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168)

V. What are 'me' anyway?

        Another important concept in Sumerian theology, was that of me.  
The me were universal decrees of divine authority.  They are the 
invocations that spread arts, crafts, and civilization.  The me were 
assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard and impart to the 
world, beginning with Eridu, his center of worship.  From there, he 
guards the me and imparts them on the people.  He directs the me towards 
Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the world with his decrees.  Later, 
Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been given too little power 
from his decrees.  In a different text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants 
her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes - a total of ninety-four 
me.  Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver the me to her cult center 
at Erech.  Enki recovers his wits and tries to recover the me from her, 
but she arrives safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-
68)

VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian
     literature.  What are they?

        Traces of Sumerian religion survive today and are reflected in 
writings of the Bible.  As late as Ezekiel, there is mention of a 
Sumerian deity.  In Ezekiel 8:14, the prophet sees women of Israel 
weeping for Tammuz (Dumuzi) during a drought.

        The bulk of Sumerian parallels can, however be found much earlier, 
in the book of Genesis.  As in Genesis, the Sumerians' world is formed 
out of the watery abyss and the heavens and earth are divinely separated 
from one another by a solid dome.  The second chapter of Genesis 
introduces the paradise Eden, a place which is similar to the Sumerian 
Dilmun, described in the myth of "Enki and Ninhursag".  Dilmun is a pure, 
bright, and holy land.  It is blessed by Enki to have overflowing, sweet 
water.  Enki fills it with lagoons and palm trees.  He impregnates 
Ninhursag and causes eight new plants to grow from the earth.  Eden, "in 
the East" (Gen. 2:8) has a river which also "rises" or overflows, to form 
four rivers including the Tigris and Euphrates.  It too is lush and has fruit 
bearing trees. (Gen. 2:9-14)  In the second version of the creation of man 
"The Lord God formed man out of the clay of the ground and blew into his 
nostrils the breath of life, and so man became a living being."  Enki and 
Ninmah (Ninhursag) use a similar method in creation man.  Nammu, queen of the 
abyss and Enki's mother, bids Enki to "Kneed the 'heart' of the clay that 
is over the Abzu " and "give it form" (Kramer & Maier p. 33)  From there 
the similarities cease as the two create several malformed humans and 
then the two deities get into an argument.

        Returning to Enki and Ninhursag, we find a possible parallel to 
the creation of Eve.  Enki consumed the plants that were Ninhursag's 
children and so was cursed by Ninhursag, receiving one wound for each 
plant consumed.  Enlil and a fox act on Enki's behalf to call back 
Ninhursag in order to undo the damage.  She joins with him again and 
bears eight new children, each of whom are the cure to one of his wounds.  
The one who cures his rib is named Ninti, whose name means the Queen of 
months, (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 28-30) the lady of the rib, or she who 
makes live.  This association carries over to Eve. (Kramer, History 
Begins at Sumer 1981: pp. 143-144)  In Genesis, Eve is fashioned from 
Adam's rib and her name hawwa is related to the Hebrew word hay or 
living. (New American Bible p. 7.)  The prologue of Gilgamesh may contain 
the predecessor to the tree of knowledge of good and evil.  This tree not 
only contains a crafty serpent, but also Lilith, the legendary first wife 
of Adam.  The huluppu tree is transplanted by Inanna from the banks of 
the Euphrates to her garden in Uruk, where she finds that:

        ..a serpent who could not be charmed
        made its nest in the roots of the tree,
        The Anzu bird set his young in the branches of the tree,
        And the dark maid Lilith built her home in the trunk. (Wolkstein 
        and Kramer 1983: p. 8)

Another possible Sumerian carry-over related to the Fall of man is the 
lack of "pangs of childbearing" for those in Dilmun.  In particular, 
Ninhursag gives birth in nine days, not nine months, and the pass "like 
good princely cream" (Kramer 1981: p. 142,145) or "fine oil" (Kramer & 
Maier 1989: p. 25)
        The clearest Biblical parallel comes from the story of the Flood.  
In the Sumerian version, the pious Ziusudra is informed of the gods 
decision to destroy mankind by listening to a wall.  He too weathers the 
deluge aboard a huge boat.  The flood lasts a long time, but Ziusudra 
comes to rest within seven days and not the Biblical forty days.  He does 
not receive a covenant, but is given eternal life.

VII. Sources
Crawford, Harriet, _Sumer_and_the_Sumerians_, Cambridge University Press,
  Cambridge, 1991.  (This is a briefer but more up to date archaeological
  look at the Sumerians than you'll find with Kramer.  There isn't much 
  mythic content in this one, but there are many wonderful figures 
  detailing city plans, and the structure of temples and other 
  buildings.)           
Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Maier, John, _Myths_of_Enki,_the_Crafty_God_,
  Oxford University Press, New York,1989.  The most recent work that 
  I've been able to find by Kramer.  They translate and analyze all
  of the availible myths which include Enki.  I've only seen it availible
  in hardcover and I haven't seen it in a bookstore yet.
Kramer, Samuel Noah _The_Sumerians_ The University of Chicago Press, 
  Chicago,1963.  (This is a more thorough work than Kramer's
  Section at the end of _Inanna_, but the intervening 20 or so years  
  of additional research and translation allow _Inanna_'s section   
  to be perhaps more complete, regarding mythology.)
Wolkstein, Diane and Kramer, Samuel Noah, _Inanna:_Queen_of_Heaven_and_ 
  _Earth_, Harper & Row, NY, 1983.  (Ms. Wolkstein's verse      
  translations of the Inanna/Dummuzi cycle of myths are excellent,    
  and Kramer gives a 30 or so page description of Sumerian cosmology    
  and society at the end)                
_The_New_American_Bible_, Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, 1970.

VIII. Other books of interest

Hooke, S. H. _Middle_Eastern_Mythology_, Penguin Books, New York, 1963.
  This work covers Sumerian, Babylonian, Canaanite/Ugaritic, Hittite, 
  and Hebrew mythologic material in brief and with comparisons.
Jacobsen, Thorkild, _The_Treasures_of_Darkness_, Yale University Press,
  New Haven, 1976.  A good alternative to Kramer, Jacobsen explores
  Mesopotamian religious development from early Sumerian times through
  the Babylonian Enuma Elish.  Most of the book winds up being on
  the Sumerians.
Kramer, Samuel Noah, _History_Begins_at_Sumer_, University of 
  Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1981.  (This text runs through a bunch
  of "firsts" that Kramer attributes to the Sumerians.  I only looked at 
  it briefly, but it seemed to contain about the same information as    
  was in _The_Sumerians_ only in a "Wow neat!" format instead of   
  something more coherent.)
Kramer, Samuel Noah, _Sumerian_Mythology_, Harper & Brothers, New York,
  1961.  This slim volume contains much of the mythologic material that
  wound up in _The_Sumerians_ but concentrated in one spot and without
  much cultural or historical detail.
Pritchard, J.B.(ed.) _Ancient_Near_Eastern_Texts_Relating_to_the_Old_Testament_,
  Princeton, 1955.  I understand that there is a later edition of this
  work.  It seems to be the authoritative source for all complete texts
  of the Sumerians, Babylonians, Canaanites, Hittites, and perhaps 
  other groups as well.  It's pricey but many libraries have a copy.
Stephenson, Neal, _Snowcrash_, Bantam Books, New York, 1992.  Cyberpunk meets
  Enki, Inanna, and the Me.
Wooley, C. Leonard, _Excavations_at_Ur_, 1954.  This is one of the 
  earliest works on the subject, and as such is not as complete as 
  the others although it is of historical interest.
  _Old_Testement_, Princeton, 1969.
see also the Assyro-Babylonian Mythology FAQ.