Marijuana and Health - an update of research results by Peter Gormand
Transcribed 5/9/90 by The Dak as originally printed in High Times, 11/87
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============================================================================
Although cannabis has been subjected to endless study and clinical
analysis, very little can be stated categorically as to its effect on health.
The scientific literature is confusing and contradictory, and the marijuana
issue polarizes emotions, making moralists of scientists. Since every
researcher is aware that his or her work is going to be used somehow by
someone in the case for legalizing or not legalizing public consumption,
personal and political bias seems to filter through the work.
Marijuana and its compounds are not simple drugs. What shows up
theoretically doesn't always appear in the lab; what appears in the lab
doesn't always appear in clinical practice. Being a psychotropic, its
effects can vary widely from user to user. Perhaps it confounds science
because it is a psychotropic. Spiritual aids are rarely classifiable.
In a time when designer cocktails can blow you into deep space with a
single dose, and crack makes instant addicts of nearly everyone who smokes
it, the issues of marijuana and its significance to health seem trivial. But
here at High Times, where pot is still king, we thought you should be
appraised of developments in the field.
First things first: Nobody's found web-footed babies, tiny testes,
atrophied brains, shrunken limbs or 44Ds in the average pot-smoking male's
contribution to conception.
But that doesn't mean perpetual intoxication has the green light. So
sit down, read this and get some of the facts. Note: Research studies
involving humans referred to in this report - with the exception of a section
on pregnancy and birth - deal with adults. As with all drugs, and
specifically intoxicants, researchers across the board recommend against the
use of pot by pre-pubescent and pubescent children.
Accumulation
============
Of the 420 known components of Cannabis, the major, if not the only,
active component is Tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly called THC. This is a
group of cannabinoids, sixty-one of which have been identified, many of which
produce some biological activity. Delta 9 THC, the principal active
component in natural cannabis, produces almost all of the characteristic
effects of grass. It is by far the most often studied of the active isomers
found in pot.
The natural cannabinoids are relatively insoluble in water but dissolve
in fats and fat solvents and are called lipid-soluble. When smoked, the THC
is rapidly absorbed by the blood in the lung; high concentrations of THC
there begin to fall rapidly within 30 minutes of smoking. From that point on
elimination slows considerably. Roughly 25 percent of the initial THC and
its metabolites remain in the body after a week, and traces from a single
dose can be found for up to thirty days. In the body, the THC binds to fatty
acids where it remains, unchanged, until it passes back into the blood stream
for elimination.
Generally, lipid-soluble compounds are completely neutralized when bound
of fatty acids, but some controversy exists over whether this rule holds true
for the psychoactive ingredients of marijuana. There is no medical question
about its distribution area - the fat cells of the entire body from the toes
to the brain - or that it remains unchanged while bound there. The questions
are what effect the THC has on the user while it waits for elimination, and
whether the repeated administration of even small doses may lead to an
accumulation of drug which is potentially higher than levels reached at any
time after a single dose.
On one side of the argument, many researchers feel that general toxicity
studies have shown marijuana to be one of the safest drugs ever studied for
cumulative effects. Another group feels that since so much is not understood
about how the THC acts on the brain, it is possible that minute doses of
active THC released back into the system may have a continued toxic effect.
Reese T. Jones of the University of California at San Francisco said in
recent correspondence that "When you say active, right now, that's an
unanswerable question...it's in the brain, there's no question of that, but
the activity issue, that depends on whom you talk to."
The problem encountered with the issue of accumulation is typical of
issues involving marijuana. There is continued debate over long-term effects
to both the chronic and casual user. Obviously, in areas of concern,
researchers find the chronic user at more risk. Few studies have shown
serious concern regarding long-term effects for the light smokers, even among
antagonists to the drug.
Acute Effects of Cannabis
=========================
Little controversy exists in discussion of the short-term or acute
effects of smoking marijuana or hashish. These occur while high levels of
THC are still in the metabolism. These short-term effects can include an
increased pulse rate, giddiness, euphoria, hallucinations, reddening of the
eyes, dryness of the mouth, sudden hunger, heightened sensory perception,
sedation and conceptual changes. A number of these - in combination - are
what is called "getting high."
Along with these generally pleasant changes, the user may also
experience nausea, anxiety, paranoia, changes in blood pressure and body
temperature, disorientation, confused states, short-term memory loss,
temporary alteration of motor skills, changes in depth perception, poor
attention span and depression. Some researchers have found that smoking
grass inhibits verbal and analytical skills in users while facilitating
nonverbal tasks.
Additionally, marijuana, when coupled with other substances, can have an
addictive effect. Alcohol and marijuana in combination can render the user
dysfunctional; marijuana used in combination with barbituates can prolong the
effect of the barbituate, and, in extreme cases (at least theoretically),
cause non-lethal doses of barbituate to become lethal doses.
In general, researchers agree that these effects, both pleasant and
unpleasant, are temporary. Even acute anxiety or paranoid reactions can be
managed with verbal reassurance. A study of 700,000 hospital admissions in
the United States in 1971 revealed that only 10 of those were for acute
cannabis reaction.
Certain tasks requiring fine motor skills - driving a vehicle or
operating certain types of machinery and equipment - should not be undertaken
while under the influence of marijuana. How long the driver will be impaired
remains under debate, but even the most liberal thinkers acknowledge that
driving should not be undertaken for three to four hours after smoking. The
other end of the spectrum puts it at more like sixteen hours - depending on
the individual, the quantity and quality of cannabis smoked and other factors.
In certain circumstances - people taking medication which cannabis might
interfere with - individual may have a short-term reaction deleterious to
their health, and judgement should be exercised in the use of cannabis.
The effects mentioned above are considered to be of short duration and
depend on the potency of the cannabis, the setting, and the user's
orientation and state of mind at time of use. Generally, some of the
negative - and, sorry to say, the positive as well - effects are expected to
be more pronounced in the newer user rather than in the more experienced
individual.
Long-Term Effects of Cannabis Use
=================================
Pulmonary Effects: The lungs are the natural target for the harmful
effects of smoked material, and among chronic smokers, chronic bronchitis and
mild airway constriction occur regularly. There are several known
carcinogens in marijuana smoke and certainly more tar - though no nicotine -
and incidental particulates than in tobacco smoke. But as yet there has not
been a single instance of human lung cancer attributable solely to marijuana
use.
The bronchial problems mentioned are somewhat more related to the act of
smoking than they are to the active ingredients in grass, and the use of a
water pipe can eliminate most of them.
Theoretical problems with fungi found in marijuana - Aspergillus, among
others - are repeatedly mentioned in the literature. However, there has only
been one official case of actual Aspergillus poisoning, and that was in a man
whose immune function was depressed as a result of intensive chemotherapy
treatments. Fungi can be killed by cooking the marijuana before use (100
degrees celsius for 30 minutes), though in most healthy people this has not
shown itself to be a problem. Marijuana smoke has been shown to inhibit
pulmonary antibacterial defense systems, but the toxin involved is reportedly
related to the smoke itself and not to any psychoactive component in the drug.
I recently spoke with Dr. Tashkin of UCLA, one of the leading pulmonary
specialists in the country, and asked him what the real risks - long-term -
to the smoker were. "We've found changes in the airways of marijuana smokers
which are also found in the airways of cigarette smokers who go on to develop
cancer...it doesn't mean they will develop cancer. That hasn't been shown to
have happened yet, its just a marker of increased risk we've found in smokers
using two ore more joints a day for more than five years. The smoking of
marijuana can lead to pulmonary complications, and that really is the bottom
line. Of course, to find out the real risk we're going to have to rely on
doctors asking their patients as to whether or not they smoke. We'll have to
record that information, and that information will have to be made available
to pathologists, and they will have to study the results."
Heart and Cardiovascular Effects:
=================================
Smoking marijuana clearly changes the heart function. The most common
and important of which is through tachycardia - a speeding up of the heart
rate that is sometimes accompanied by temporary changes in blood pressure -
and, occasionally, by ventricular fibulation - a condition where ventricle
contractions become uncoordinated.
These effects have been shown to be temporary and reversible and not
problematic in healthy individuals. In certain circumstances, however, they
could lead to serious complications - specifically in people with heart
problems or angina pectoris. Those taking medication for the heart are
recommended to avoid smoking cannabis, since the THC may interfere with those
medications.
The side effects of the speeding up of the heart rate (which also occur
in tobacco smoking, though not to as great a degree) can include temporary
change in body temperature, dizziness on standing and diminished capacity for
exercise.
There is as yet no evidence of heart disease caused by marijuana or any
evidence of permanent effects to the hearts of healthy individuals, though
Reese T. Jones cautions that, "The lessons learned from chronic tobacco use
are worth considering [since] THC seems to have a far more profound effect on
the cardiovascular system than does nicotine."
Hormonal Effects:
=================
Effects from both acute and chronic exposure to cannabis have been shown
in laboratory animals. In male animals, the primary effects have been a
lower sperm production and changes in the serum testosterone levels in the
blood. In female animals, changes include disrupted menstrual cycles and a
decrease in the production of prolactin, a hormone which aids in the
production of breast milk.
In humans, there appears to be a modest reversible suppressive effect on
sperm production, which some studies debate, nothing that tolerance quickly
develops and sperm production rises again (even during smoking) with no
evidence that this has a deleterious effect on male fertility. Female
hormonal study, at best, indicates a slight disruption of menstrual cycles.
Some researchers are quick to point out that this disruption would have an
obvious effect on those trying to conceive on particular days, while others
don't feel this is a particularly negative effect.
Some scientists feel that for men with marginal procreative or sexual
functions, even a slight lowering of their testosterone levels might cause
problems - though studies have failed to show this clinically.
Scientists across the board are concerned with the possible problems
connected with pre-pubescent, chronic smokers and what effect even micro and
reversible hormonal changes would have on their development. As yet there is
little evidence to suggest any great problems in this area, but there is
general agreement that this situation requires further study.
Cell and Chromosome Effects:
============================
The numbers and kinds of chromosomes - Structures in a cell nucleus
which contain and transmit genetic information carried by DNA - are
characteristic for a given species. Structural variation and changes in the
numbers of chromosomes may be evidence of genetic damage due to drugs or
other cmemical agents. While there have been studies which indicate that tar
found in marijuana smoke can inhibit cell division in certain types of cells,
there have been fairly conclusive studies made which indicate that marijuana
does not break chromosomes.
Studied that do indicate chromosomes have either been conducted on lab
animals - using doses of THC which were larger than humans could conceivably
take - or on multiple drug abusers, and those results "may be due to other
factors associated with a life of heavy drug use."
The Relman Report - a government-sponsored study of marijuana and health
conducted in 1980 to 1981 to review all the then-existing marijuana research
- concludes that "the weight of evidence from human studies indicates that
neither marijuana nor THC causes chromosome damage."
The Immune System
=================
The immune system functions in protecting the body against viruses,
bacteria, poisons and other infections. It also plays a major role in
preventing the growth and dissemination of cancerous cells. The primary
components in the system are two active white blood cells (T-cell and B-cell)
and macrophages. B-cells identify specific body enemies and produce
antibodies to chemically disarm them. T-cells consume viruses, poisons and
cancerous cells. The primary job of macrophages is to stop anything breathed
in that could cause disease by absorbing it. Both the T-cell and macrophages
grow as they consume, and they divide when they have reached their size
limit, creating more of themselves.
Any inhibition of these functions, either in identification, consumption
or creation of antibodies to fight off the invading agents is called an
immuno-suppressive effect. The body simply isn't handling the problem.
Some early studies in this area indicated that the T-cell's ability to
divide was inhibited by THC, though these studies were conducted only in the
laboratory. Later studies have shown a weak immuno-suppressive effect in
macrophages, though these effects varied from subject to subject and were
regarded as transitory. That is, shortly after smoking, while there was a
high concentration of THC in the body the body, there was a measurable
change; the response returned to normal as THC levels dropped.
More recent studies, conducted by Munson and Fehr, conclude that
marijuana reduces resistance to infection but acknowledged that this change
would very from person to person and would most often by minor: "It is
likely that we would not be aware of profound changes in the resistance of
humans if they occurred frequently. But even minor effects would be
significant among those with immune disorders or with immunity otherwise
suppressed."
On this last count, there is some concern from several quarters. Even
minor changes in immune response have to be looked at critically in the light
of the current AIDS epidemic, not as a cause by any stretch of the
imagination, but simply because it is an area which has not yet been
researched.
This is not a cause of concern for the user. It is only mentioned
because a number of scientists feel that ANY drug which relates, even mildly,
to the immuno-suppressive response cries out for research in view of this new
problem.
Pregnancy and Offspring
=======================
Early reports which tied cannabis use to birth defects in humans on the
grand scale - webbed feet, retardation, and so on - have been discounted by
even the most anti-cannabis scientists. Those studies that reported these
findings generally dealt with lower-economic groups who practiced poor
nutrition, drank heavily and were often multiple drug abusers. Even then,
such major birth defects showed up with such rarity that few people took them
seriously.
The reality is that while there are some effects to the offspring of
both humans and animals from cannabis use - generally from cannabis use -
generally from PURE THC - the changes are not very dramatic. Saraseth, Carol
Grace Smith, Susan Dalterio and Peter Fried, among others, have found
unhealthy changes in offspring of lab animals exposed to THC, but most of
these involved short-term nervous disorders, aberrant visual attention spans,
lighter birth weights and shorter gestation periods. Radical doses of THC
have had greater effects, but only in lab animals and these did not
correspond with human test results. Of the above mentioned researchers, all
but Dalterio agreed that offspring whose mothers were exposed to cannabis or
THC caught up with non-exposed offspring within thirty days after birth.
Dalterio's work deals with second generation mice, and her early results -
roundly disputed - suggest that fertility and hormonal production can be
affected in those second generational lab mice.
Dr. Peter Fried, a leading researcher in the field who works with human
offspring, says, "There are no major effects to offspring when marijuana is
used in conjunction with good nutrition during pregnancy. Marijuana has been
used by middle-class women very comfortably during pregnancy since the
1960's. If there were any major effects they would have been noticed by now.
But that doesn't mean that there aren't subtle effects that might be
important." Those effects include "a significant increase in symptoms
associated with nervous symptom abnormalities which might indicate a mild
form of withdrawal...the optimum condition is for a pregnant woman not to use
any exogenous agents at all."
Because THC is known to cross the placenta and to be found in breast
milk, and because the effects - even minor effects - are not fully
understood, this sentiment is generally echoed in the scientific community;
use of cannabis by pregnant women is not recommended.
The Brain
=========
Despite two outlandish studies published in the 1970's which concluded
that marijuana caused brain atrophy, researchers universally agree that there
is no evidence that cannabis causes structural changes in the brain. On the
other hand, several teams of researchers have found changes in the brain's
electrical activity in human beings during the most active periods of THC
action. These changes diminish as the effects of the "high" wear off.
More to the point are the chemical changes marijuana causes, since these
changes are what produce the "high," and the issue of accumulation. Most
researchers agree that while THC in minute doses remains in the brain for
some time after smoking, it is neutralized. New studies have found traces of
subcortical activity, presumably related to marijuana use and isolated to
that use, long after the "high" was worn off.
Reese T. Jones had written in 1980, after much study, that "the weight
of evidence [indicates] that lasting neuro-physiological impairments are
possibly, but not inevitably, associated with some undetermined level of
heavy, prolonged marijuana use." Dr. Jones was one of the members of the
Relman Committee, and when I spoke with him recently about his 1980 findings
he said, "The conclusion of the National Academy of Science group - the
Relman Report - was that not all the answers were known but that one should
not be complacent and assume you're gonna get away scot-free. They were a
very good group of researchers, most of whom had no axe to grind about
marijuana. It's a very complicated drug, or series of drugs and there's so
much we don't know."
Several other scientists I spoke with felt the same way. The brain is
very complicated, and the effect of cannabis on it is not fully understood.
Subtle changes invisible to testing methods may occur. Gilekson, making a
humorous report to a Senate subcommittee in 1980, concluded, "Marijuana may
not lead to death, but it might reduce the chronic smoker to mediocrity."
Still others are not convinced that there is any evidence to support the
idea of accumulated toxicity or any other effects which are not entirely
reversible once smoking stops. But even they would like to see more research
money spent to study long-term effects to chronic, heavy smokers, and almost
no one is willing to commit themslves to saying there are absolutely NO
lasting effects, because so much remains to be understood about how the brain
really works.
No scientists of repute suggested any real hazards in this regard for
the casual user.
Patterns and Behavioral Syndromes
=================================
Although there is no evidence to suggest that a specific cannabis
psychosis exists, there has been enough clinical evidence of negative
behavioral patterns among chronic cannabis users for researchers to recognize
the interaction of the drug with previously existing problems. In other
words, psychological problems and psychiatric illnesses, while not
necessarily caused by chronic smoking, can certainly be worsened by it,
according to Rick Seymour, of the Haight-Ashbury Drug Abuse Clinic. These
"long-term problems or situation - where marijuana is being used to self-
medicate underlying psychological problems - call for appropriate counseling
by health professionals."
Frequently discussed behavioral patterns among chronic smokers include:
- Antimotivational Syndrome: Characterized by apathy, loss of ambition, loss
of effectiveness, diminished ability to carry out long-term plans, difficulty
in concentrating and a decline in school and work performance. This syndrome
may be seen in non-smokers of marijuana, and even chronic use is not always
associated with loss of motivation, but people experiencing these symptoms
will, again according to Seymour, "Probably worsen the situation by taking
any sedating drug." Biologically, this syndrome does not exist, but, as
Hollister, a reputable researcher notes: "One cannot help being impressed by
the fact that many promising youngsters change their goals in life
drastically after entering the illicit drug culture, usually by way of
cannabis. With cannabis, as with most other pleasures, moderation is the key
word." The problem, for the user, is to determine the difference between use
and abuse.
- Toxic Delerium: Also known as acute brain syndrome, it is characterized by
a clouding of consciousness manifested by impairment of ability to sustain
attention to a goal or stimuli, changes in sleep patterns and sustained
disorientation. These symptoms are found only occasionally, and then usually
in long-term heavy users. Reese T. Jones has said, "Almost anyone given the
right dose in the right setting can be made to exhibit a set of
schizophrenic-like symptoms." Symptoms disappear with abstinence, provided
there is no additional psychological or physiological problem.
- Effects on Pre-existing Mental Illness: Clinical, not biological, evidence
suggests that in some cases - particularly patients with mood disorders and
schizophrenia - may be negatively affected by smoking grass.
-Flashback Syndrome: While there is no biological evidence yet of a
flashback syndrome, many researchers feel that there is a king of deja vu -
often relating to acute anxiety - that many marijuana users encounter. Mike
Wizner of the Beverly Hills Detox Center, says he regularly treats people for
these negative feelings, which in some cases can be quite severe whether
chemically induced or not.
- Affects on Aggression: With the exception of the occasional rare individual
with some special disposition to violence, every experiment conducted with
cannabis has shown a decrease in aggression in the user.
Addiction
=========
Most reasearchers agree that addiction, literal and physiological to
cannabis can occur after unspecified, long-term, heavy exposure to the drug.
But withdrawal symptoms are very mild - slight depression, anxiety, possible
nausea - and of very short duration - several days or less. Fear of
withdrawal is not seen as a reason for continuing use. On the other hand,
"You have the same sort of psychological syndromes you do with any other
addiction," according to Dr. Norman Zinberg of Harvard Medical School's
Department of Psychiatry.
Quantities of cannabis needed to attain addiction are nonspecific
(varying from person to person) but because they are known to be high, the
casual user does not run the risk of physical addiction.
Stepping Stone Syndrome
=======================
Marijuana use does not physically lead to the use of, or experimentation
with, any other substances. Moreover, government studies indicate that
changes in an individual's behavior start before drug use. On the other
hand, clinical studies indicate that experimentation with one drug seems to
open a gate for experimentation with others. According to the National
Institute for Drug Abuse, those people who are going to have drug problems
generally begin by drinking alcohol and smoking cigarettes, becoming addicted
to one or the other of these substances and then experiment with speed or
cocaine.
Cannabis and the Drug Addict
============================
Rick Seymour has been working for years with people who have drug
related problems and has written extensively for a number of journals and
magazines, including High Times. When asked whether marijuana is harmful to
addicts trying to stay clean, he says "People who are getting off alcohol or
other drugs are in a position of having to deal very carefully with what they
are doing with their lives, from their diet to their behavior and so on.
What happens when they smoke is that grass creates a sense of euphoria that
reminds them of how nice it was to be loaded and there is goes. It's as
simple as that. There could even be a physiological factor that we don't
know about...[smoking] does seem to contribute to relapses among addicted
people."
Possible Medical Uses of Marijuana
==================================
Various societies have used cannabis to treat a variety of illnesses
over the centuries, and Western medicine has recently begun to investigate
cannabis as well. According to the Relman Report, there are two reasons for
medical interest: The first is that cannabis exerts its effects "through
mechanisms that differ from those of other available drugs," and secondly
"since cannabis often works as an additive with other drugs, it is possible
that cannabis could be combined with other drugs to achieve a therapeutic
goal, but with each drug being used at a lower dose than would be required if
either were used alone. As a result, fewer side effects would be expected to
occur."
Some of the experimentation has been promising, but some has been a
dismal failure. (Note Rick Seymour's comment about drug addiction in the
section on syndromes.) Some of the areas of the therapeutic potential of
cannabis include:
Glaucoma: Smoking marijuana reduces intraocular pressure in many patients,
but the effect is temporary (only as long as three or four hours), and many
patients don't like the side effect of intoxication. Some research is
continuing with the thought of isolating Delta 8-THC and making a topical
ointment that would have the therapeutic effect without the intoxication.
Chemotherapy: Vomiting and nausea which accompanies chemotherrapy
treatment in cancer patients is so awful that some patients discontinue
treatment. Cannabis has been found to be an anti-emetic (anti-vomiting)
agent, and Delta 9-THC has been made available through the Food and Drug
Administration for this purpose in most states. Again, the intoxicating
effects are sometimes disorienting, and the treatment is seen as worse than
the disease. Some research is going on in an attempt to isolate certain
cannabinoids which would produce the anti-emetic action without side effects.
In some cancer patients cannabis has been shown to be an appetite
stmulant, but here too, side effects have kept many patients from continuing
its use.
Anticonvulsant: Human and animal studies have shown that Cannabis can be
useful in blocking certain types of seizures - notably certain types of
epileptic seizures - and research is being done in this area.
Muscle Relaxant: Petro and Ellenberger have demonstrated that cannabis is
effective in relieving muscle spasm or spasticity, though there seems to be
no evidence of continuing research in this promising field.
Asthma Relief: While marijuana works as a bronchodilator and was thought at
one time to be of possible use in this area, it is no longer considered
viable because of the tolerance that develops to the smoke. Some work is
being done on isolating compounds which might be effective and not require
smoking.
Analgesic Action: While some studies have shown cannabis to be effective in
blocking certain types of pain, none show it more effective than what is
already on the market. No further research is currently being done in this
area.
Alcoholism: While at one time it was thought that cannabis might be
effective in treating alcoholism, it has now been shown that cannabis and
alcohol have an addictive effect on each other and produce undesirable
effects in this area.
Opiate Withdrawal: Here too, cannabis was at one time thought to be an
effective tool. Now, however, it has been shown to not aid the withdrawing
addict and to possibly reduce mental toughness, actually leading to
continuing addiction and relapse.
Cannabis Research
=================
1. There is a problem of relating animal research to human experience.
In many areas the crossover is not accepted as accurate.
2. Problems are encountered in regulating the dose. In research it is
easier to use isolated Delta 9-THC, though it is rarely used by itself in the
individual, and the isolated component doesn't necessarily act the same way
when it is found as part of the whole plant.
3. Since researchers are not permitted to take non-smokers and make
them smokers - grass being illegal - they must study subjects who already
smoke. Since smokers are often multidrug users, assessing what part of a
health issue is directly associated with grass is often a difficult and,
certainly a manipulable factor.
4. In studied of cross-cultural smokers, ganja smokers in Jamaica for
example, critics of these studies point out that the accurate histories of
the subjects contain variables that researchers cannot control. Proponents
of these cross-cultural studies point out that these populations have a
generational history of smoking. Critics point out that in cultures where
cannabis is acceptable, it is acceptable only among laborers, not in
intelligentsia, and so results are not applicable to our society.
5. Not every researcher is scrupulous, and the lure of a research buck
or continuing research bucks for information the funding organizations want
to hear cannot be overlooked.
Summary
=======
Enough is known about the effects of marijuana to keep most researchers
from saying that the heavy, chronic smoker will get a completely free ride.
There have been demonstrable negative effects to the lungs and unanswered
questions regarding several other bodily functions. It's questionable
whether these represent a serious danger to the user: The answer you get
depends on the researcher you speak with. At this time, the adverse effects
appear fully reversible though abstinence, though a good deal more research
is hoped for in several areas to clarify the issue.
Information in this report was compiled primarily thorough the use of
several research review/overview reports. Specific bibliographical requests
will be furnished on request. Address queries to Peter Gorman, C/O High
Times, 211 E. 43rd St., New York, NY 10017.
Marijuana Research/Overview Reports
===================================
Dewey, Wm. L., "Cannabinoid Pharmacology," Pharmacological Reviews, Vol. 38,
#2
Hollister, Leo, "Health Aspects of Cannabis," Pharmacological Reviews, Vol.
38, #1
Jones, Helen C. and Paul Lovinger, The Marijuana Question, Dodd, Mead, 1986
Latimer, Dean, "The Complete Cannabis," High Times, Feb. 1985
National Institute of Drug Abuse, various reports furnished by the U.S.
government.
Smith, David, M.D. and Rick Seymour, M.A., "Abuse Folio: Marijuana," a look
at the nature, use and hazards of grass; High Times, October, 1982
United States Congressional Subcommittee Hearings, "Health Consequences of
Marijuana," 1980
United Sates Department of Health and Human Services, HHS News, May 5, 1987
Unites States Secretary of Health and Human Services/National Institute of
Medicine, Marijuana and Health, "The Relman Report," a study of all known
marijuana research conducted between 1965 and 1980; National Academy Press,
1982.
Wert, Renee, Ph.D. and M. Raulin, Ph.D., "The Chronic Cerebral Effects of
Cannabis Use: Neurological Findings," International Journal of Addictions,
Vol. 21, #6, pp. 605-628
World Health Organization, reports acquired from the United Nations.
Zinberg, Norman, Drugs, Set and Setting, Yale Press, 1984