From: [h--dg--s] at [jif.berkeley.edu] (Kenneth Hodges)
Newsgroups: rec.games.frp.archives
Subject: REFERENCE: medieval price list
Date: 19 Aug 93 13:26:28 GMT
The list of medieval prices which follows is by no means complete or
thoroughly researched; I merely extracted references from some of the
books I have, and I thought others might like to inspect it. The sources
I used are listed at the end. If an item is listed several times, it is
because I had several references I wished to record.
Money goes as follows:
1 pound (L) = 20 shillings (s)
1 crown = 5 shillings
1 shilling = 12 pence (d)
1 penny = 4 farthings
1 mark = 13s 4d
The French Livre, sou, and denier are equivalent to the pound, shilling
and penny (Latin libra, solidus, and denarius, I believe, which is where
the weird English abbreviations come from).
For ease, I've divided this list into the following sections: tools,
horses, food and livestock, books and education, buildings, cloth and
clothing, armor, weapons, marriage, funerals, travel, miscellaneous
goods, and wages.
Of course, a price list is a misleading guide to a feudal economy,
because so many goods were either produced within a household, or
supplied by a lord. Retainers could get money, but they would also get
food, lodging, weapons (sometimes), and cloth. Knights Templar were
provided with clothes, horses, and armor.
--Kenneth Hodges, [h--dg--s] at [math.berkeley.edu]
TOOLS
Item Price Date Source Page
2 yokes 4s c1350 [3] 170
Foot iron of plough 5d " " "
Plough, total 3s-4s 14 cen(?) [3] 171
3 mason's tools (not named) 9d " " "
1 spade and shovel 3d 1457 " "
1 axe 5d " " "
1 augur 3d " " "
1 vise 13s 4d 1514 [5] 27-28
Large biciron 60s " " "
Small biciron 16s " " "
Anvil 20s " " "
Bellows 30s " " "
Hammers 8d-2s 8d " " "
2 chisels 8d " " "
Compete set of armorer's tools L13 16s 11d " " "
Spinning Wheel 10 d 1457 [3] 170
Spinning Wheel 1s or less ? [3] 172
Loom and treadle 2s 1432 [3] 172
HORSES
Item Price Date Source Page
War Horse up to 50s 12 cen (?) [7] 30
War Horse up to L80 13 cen [3] 72
Knight's 2 horses L10 1374 " 76
High-grade riding horse L10 13th cen " 72
Draught horse 10s-20s 13th cen " "
Note: Horse prices varied dramatically; for instance, they doubled
between 1210 and 1310. ([3], p. 37).
FOOD AND LIVESTOCK
Item Price Date Source Page
Wine:
Best Gascon in London 4d/gallon 1331 [2] 194
Best Rhenish in London 8d/London " " "
Wine:
Cheapest 3d-4d/gal Late 13 cen [3] 62
Best 8d-10d/gal " " "
Wine 2.5d/gallon 1300 [10] 45
Ale (beer comes later):
Good 1.5d/gal 14 cen [2] 201
Medium 1d/gal " " "
Poor .75d/gal " " "
Ale:
First-rate 1-1.25d/gal 1320-1420 [3] 58
Second-rate .75-1d/gal " " "
Ale (best):
Somerset .75d 1338 [3] 210
London 1.25d " " "
Beer, good 1d/quart late 16 cen [8] xx
Dried Fruit (eg raisins, dates, 1-4d/lb, up
figs, prunes), almonds, rice to 6d rare 14 cen(?) [3] 62-63
Spices (cinnamon, cloves, mace,
pepper, sugar, etc). 1-3s/lb " " "
Pepper 4s/lb mid 13 cen [9] 218
Pepper 6d/.5lb 1279-1280 [3] 11
Saffron 12s-15s/lb 14 cen(?) [3] 62-63
Cow (good) 10s 12 cen(?) [7] 30
Cow 9s 5d mid 14th [1] 99
Cow 6s 1285-1290 [3] 206
Ox 13s 1.25d mid 14 cen [1] 99
Ox carcase 3s 8d late 13 cen " 45
Ox 10s 1290s [3] 116
Beef 2d/lb 16 cen [10] 201
Sheep 1s 5d " " "
Wether:
Somerset 9d-10d 1338 [3] 210
London 1s 5d " " "
Pig:
Somerset 2s 1338 [3] 210
London 3s " " "
Pig 2s 8d c1300 [10] 45
A bacon 9.5d 1305 [10] 45
Fowl 1d " " "
2 Chickens 1d 14 cen [4] 78
2 Dozen Eggs 1d " " "
Eggs 4d/100 1290s [3] 115
Goose (in London) 6d (legal)
7d-8d asked 1375 [2] 198
Goose 4d 1290s [3] 116
80 lb cheese 3s 4d late 13 cen [3] 114
Salted herring (wholesale) 5-10/1d 1382 [2] 198-199
Salt conger 6d each 1422-1423 [3] 69
Oats:
Somerset 1s/quarter 1338 " 210
London 2s 2d per " " "
quarter
Oatmeal 2s/28 lb late 13 cen [10] 44
Wheat (not best quality) .75d/lb late 13 cen " "
Salt 16d/28 lb late 13 cen " "
Salt 3s/28 lb 1300 " 44
Food for a garrison of 51 men
for one year (meat, fresh and
salted, cheese, eggs, butter,
meal, salt, bread, ale) L24 5s 1.5d 1299 [10] 45
Cost of feeding a knight's or L30-L60, 15 cen [3] 199
merchants household per year up to L100
Related note: around 1380, these are the average costs per day of feeding
people on an estate ([3], p. 65): lord, 7d; esquire, 4d; yeoman, 3d; and
groom, 1d.
BOOKS AND EDUCATION
Item Price Date Source Page
Monastary School L2 (approx) 1392-1393 [3] 75
per year
Schoolmaster at Croyden:
Board 2s/week* 1394 [2] 186
Instruction 13s 4d/year " " "
Oxford:
Board 104s/year 1374 " "
Clothing 40s/year " " "
Instruction 26s 8d/year " " "
University:
Minimum L2-L3/year Late 14 cen [3] 75
Student of good birth L4-L10/year " " "
Fencing Instruction 10s/month Late 16 cen [8] xx
7 Books L5 (approx) 1479 [3] 76
126 Books L113 1397 [3] 77
To Rent a book .5d-1d per mid 13 cen [9] 172
pecia**
* Source says 2s/day. This is not only insanely high, but the text also
claims that the board was the same as at Oxford--i.e., 2s/week or
104s/year.
** A pecia is 16 columns of 62 lines of 32 letters, i.e., 31 744 letters,
or about 7 500 - 8 000 words. Rental period is not specified, but I
would guess a year; books were rented to be copied, and copying the Bible
took 15 months. See [9], p. 172.
BUILDINGS
Item Price Date Source Page
Rent per annum for 138 shops on
London Bridge L160 4s 1365 [2] 114
Rent for the three London
taverns with the exclusive
right to sell sweet wines
(hippocras, clarry, piments) L200 1365-1375 [2] 195-196
Rent cottage 5s/year 14 cen(?) [3] 208
Rent craftsman's house 20s/year " " "
Rent merchant's house L2-L3/year " " "
To build a flimsy cottage 10s early 14 cen [3] 166
Cottage (1 bay, 2 storeys) L2 early 14 cen " 205
Peasant house, peasant built,
3 bays L2-L3 15 cen [3] 167
Peasant house, lord built,
(better quality) L2-L7 15 cen [3] 167
Row house in York (well built) up to L5 " " "
Craftsman's house (i.e., with
shop, work area, and room
for workers) with 2-3 bays
and tile roof L10-L15 early 14 cen [3] 205
Modest hall and chamber, not
including materials L12 1289 [3] 79-80
Merchant's house L33-L66 early 14 cen [3] 205
House with courtyard L90+ " " "
Goldsmith's Hall (in London,
with hall, kitchen, buttery,
2 chambers) L136 1365 [2] 114
Large tiled barn L83 1309-1310 [3] 79
Wooden gatehouse (30' long),
barn, and drawbridge:
Contract L5 6s 8d + 1341 [3] 81
builder's
clothing
Estimated total L16 " " "
Stone Gatehouse (40' X 18'):
with all except stone L16 13s 4d 1313 [3] 79-80
estimated with stone L30 " " "
Tower in castle's curtain wall L333, L395 late 14 cen " "
Castle & college at Tattershall L450/annum 1434-1446 " 81
for 13 years
Transept of Gloucester Abbey L781 1368-1373 [3] 79-80
Stonework of church (125', no L113 13 cen(?) " "
tower) (contract)
note: tithes were often calculated at 1d a week for every 20s of annual
rent paid (4, p. 208).
The following are the estimates of raw materials and labor that went into
the tower of Langeais, a rectangular, tapering stone tower built in 992-
994. The source is [6], pp. 47ff. The dimensions at the base were 17.5
meters by 10 meters; the height was 16m (3 floors); the walls were 1.5m
thick, made of two shells filled with loose rock.
Limestone in building: about 1050 cubic meters, or 2 600 000 kg
Wood in building: 47.5 cubic meters, or 34 600 kg
Nails: 3 400, or 50 kg
Mortar: 350 cubic meters.
To make the mortar:
sand: 225 cubic meters, or 360 000 kg
limestone: 40 cubic meters, or 160 000 kg
green wood: 540 cubic meters, or 286 000 kg
Labor Costs, in Average Working Days (AWD):
procurement: 14 250
transport: 2 880
labor:
unskilled: 63 500
mason: 12 700
smith: 1 600
CLOTH AND CLOTHING
Item Price Date Source Page
Fashionable gown easily L10, late 14 cen [2] 53
up to L50
Gentry:
Shoes 4d 1470s [3] 79
Boots 6d " " "
Purse 1.5d " " "
Hat 10d, 1s 2d " " "
Craftsman's tabard and super-
tunic 3s 1285-1290 [3] 206
Reeve's murrey (dark brown) robe 6s 4d 1349-1352 " 176
Reeve's red robe 5s 3d " " "
Peasants (wealthy):
Linen Chemise 8d 1313 [3] 175
Shoes 6d " " "
Woolen garment 3s " " "
Fur-lined garments 6s 8d early 14 cen " "
Tunic 3s " " "
Linen 1s " " "
Landless serfs' tunics 1d-6d mid 14 cen " 176
Cloth for peasant tunics 8d-1s 3d early 14 cen " "
per yard
Canvas, 20 ells (25 yards) 6s 8d 1300-1305 [10] 45
Best Wool 5s/yard 1380 [3] 78
"Tawny and russet" 6s/yard 1479-1482 " "
Silk 10s-12s 15 cen(?) " "
per yard
Furs added to garment +L2-L3 to 15 cen(?) " 79
garment
The worth of cloth provided
yearly by a lord to:
esquires 2s 11d/yard 1289-1290 [3] 78
yeomen 2s/yard " " "
lesser servants 1s 7d/yard " " "
Note: loose tunics take 2.25-2.5 yards. In the late 14th century,
shorter doubled (lined) tunics, known as doublets, became fashionable,
requiring 4 yards ([3], pp 175,176).
ARMOR
Item Price Date Source Page
Mail 100s 12 cen(?? [7] 30
Ready-made Milanese armor L8 6s 8d 1441 [4] 112
Squire's armor L5-L6 16s 8d " " "
Armor for Prince of Wales,
"gilt and graven" L340 1614 [5] 20
Complete Lance Armor L3 6s 8d 1590 [5] 185
Complete corselets 30s " " "
Cuirass of proof with pauldrons 40s " " "
Normal cuirass with pauldrons 26s 8d " " "
Target of proof 30s " " "
Morion 3s 4d " " "
Burgonet 4s " " "
Cuirass of pistol-proof with
pauldrons L1 6s 1624 [5] 189-190
Cuirass without pauldrons L1 " " "
Lance Armor L4 " " "
Targets of Proof 24s " " "
Cuirass with cap L4 " " "
Armor of proof L14 2s 8d 1667 " 68
Bascinet 13s 4d + 1369 " 88
3s 4d to
line it
Bascinet 2s 2.5d 1300-1305 [10] 45
Armor in a merchant's house
(leather?) 5s 1285-1290 [3] 206
Total Armor owned by a knight L16 6s 8d 1374 " 76
Armor in house of Thomas of
Woodstock, duke of Gloucester L103 1397 " 77
Fee for cleaning rust off
corselets 5d each 1567 [5] 80
Fee for varnishing, replacing
straps, and rivetting helmet
and corselet 1s 4d 1613 [5] 90
Barrel for cleaning mail 9d 1467 [5] 79
Note: mail is chainmail; almost all the rest is plate-armor. The armor
of the knight in 1374 was probably mail with some plates; same for
Gloucester's. Mail was extremely susceptible to rust, and was cleaned by
rolling it in sand and vinegar in a barrel. Pauldrons are shoulder
plates; morions are open helms, burgonets and bascinets closed helms; and
a target refers to any of a number different kind of shields. Armor of
proof is tested during the making with blows or shots from the strongest
weapons of the time; if a weapon is listed, the armor does not claim to
be proof against everything, only that it is proof up to that weapon's
strength (eg pistol proof is not musket proof, but may be sword proof).
All plate armor was lined with cloth, to pad the wearer, quiet the armor,
and reduce wear between the pieces. This, along with the necessary
straps, was a significant amount of the expense. An armorer asking for
money to set up shop in 1624 estimated production costs and profit for a
number of different types of armor: I give two examples below ([5], pp.
189-190). Cuirass of proof with pauldrons:
plates: 5s 6d
finishing, rivets, and straps: 7s 6d
selling price 26s
Lance armor:
plates 14s 5d
finishing, et cetera 40s
selling price 80s
WEAPONS
Item Price Date Source Page
Cheap sword (peasant's) 6d 1340s [3] 174
Pair of wheel-lock pistols,
with tools for them L2 16s mid 17th [4] 208
Holsters for pistols 6d " " "
Wheel-lock carbine L1 10s " " "
Shoulder belt for carbine 1s " " "
Pair of flintlock pistols L2 5s " " "
Flintlock carbine L1 2s " " "
Musket 16s 6d-18s 6d " " "
Lance 6d 1300-1305 [10] 45
Small crossbow 3-5s late 13 cen [10] 44
Large crossbow 5-7s Late 13 cen [10] 44
1000 crossbow bolts 26s-34s 4d Late 13 cen [10] 44
1000 Iron heads for bolts 14d-16d Late 13 cen [10] 44
Longbow of bough wood
(heartwood is better) 12d mid 14 cen [10] 44
Long bow of heartwood 1s 6d mid 14 cen [10] 44
12 branchwood bows and 120
arrows 12s 4d 1470 [10] 44
10 bows 20s 1480 [10] 44
"White" long bow* 1s 6d 14 cen [10] 83
"Painted" long bow* 2s 14 cen [10] 83
Best longbow, max legal price 3s 4d late 15 cen [10] 44
Ann Boleyn's bows 4s 4d each 1534 [10] 135
Bowstaves (unfinished)
From Salzburg L15-L16/100 1574 [10] 128-129
From Switzerland L12-L13/100 1574 [10] 128-129
From East Europe (too cold) L4-L5/100 1574 [10] 128-129
288 arrows (12 sheaves) 34s 8d 1480 [10] 44
2 Arrows .25d 1300-1305 [10] 45
4000 arrows 52s 5d 1359 [10] 83
Livery arrows 18d/sheaf early 16 cen [10] 133
Fee for refitting arrows
(renocking, refeathering,
reheading and trimming) 9d/sheaf early 16 cen [10] 133
Red leather quiver 9d 1480 [10] 44
Quiver belt 2d 1480 [10] 44
*The distinction between white and painted is not clear. Robert Hardy
suggests white bows were not well seasoned, and that painted bows were
fully-seasoned (better) bows, varnished to preserve the wood.
note: in 16th century the difference between a good and bad bow could be
as much as 1s ([10], p. 136). Draw-weights were huge; in bows recovered
from the Tudor warship the Mary Rose, the draw weights were 100-180 lbs.
([10], p. 201). Merchants were often required to bring in bowstaves as
part of a toll (for instance, 10 staves for every cask of wine, at a
penalty of 13s 4d in 1483, [10] p, 130). The fine for skipping archery
practice on a hoilday was 2 farthings ([10], 129).
Note: Sorry, folks, that's all I found. It was mandatory in England for
all freemen to own certain types of weapons and armor. (In 1181 every
freeman having goods worth 10 marks (1 mark = 13s 4d) had to have a mail
shirt, a helmet, and a spear. All other freemen should have helmet,
spear, and gambeson (quilted armor) [4], p. 39.) Later, the government
stored arms and armour in churches for use; in the 13th century anyone
with an income of L2-L5 (wealthy peasants) had to have bows; archery
practice became compulsory on Sundays and holidays. You may know that
the extreme range of the longbow was 400 yards, but did you know that a
statute of Henry VIII no one over 24 could practice at a range of less
than 220 yards? (See [4], p. 95 and elsewhere).
Note: for guessing prices, see the section on tools (an axe for 5d). An
armorer might make 24s a month; say a week to make a decent sword, and
you might get a price that way. See the section on books and education
for fencing instruction.
MARRIAGE
Item Price Date Source Page
Sample peasant dowries: 13s 4d, 14 cen(?) [3] 179
35s 11d,
57s, 63s 4d
For serfs, mechet (fees) to lord,
depending on wealth 1s-13s 4d 14 cen(?) [3] 179
Wedding feast, wealthy peasant 20s " " "
Wealthy peasant wedding total L3-L4 " " "
Dowry for esquire's daughter up to L66 15 cen " 84
13s 4d
Dowry for baron's daughter L1000 + " " "
London parents (both sets)
each offered couple L100 1385 [2] 154
Note: these costs will be wildly varying depending on circumstance.
FUNERALS
Item Price Date Source Page
Cheap gentlewoman's funeral
(bell-ringing, clergy, food) L7 1497 [3] 85
Brass monument, with a figure
incised, on marble base--
fitting for lesser aristocrat L8 early 14 cen " "
Bishop Mitford's funeral
(with 1450 guests!) L130+ 1407 " "
Memorial Chapel for Richard
Beauchamp, earl of Warwick L2481 1439-1463 " "
Bronze effigy on guilded tomb L400 " " "
Note: Christopher Dyer gives as a rough rule of thumb 1 year's income for
a funeral ([3], p. 85)
TRAVEL
Item Price Date Source Page
Queen's chariot L400 14 cen [1] 99
Lady Eleanor's chariot L1000 14 cen [1] 99
Chariot L8 1381 [3] 72
Chariot maintence 1-3s/year 14 cen " "
Barge L10 " " "
Iron-bound cart 4s c1350 " 170
Cart, wooden (not fit for long
trips) 1-2s 14 cen(?) [3] 171
Cart, iron-shod wheels (fit for
long trips) 10s-18s 14 cen(?) [3] 171
Guide for a night 1d 14 cen [1] 129
Ferry ride per horseman 1d " " "
Keeping an earl's warhorse
82 days in summer 36s 9.5d 1287 [3] 71
To hire small ship (26 crew) 52s 6d/week 1355 [10] 86
Note: [1], pp 126-129, gives the following prices at an inn in 1331. For
one day, 3 men with 4 servants spent: Bread, 4d; beer, 2d; wine 1.25d;
meat, 5.5d; potage, .25d; candles, .25d; fueld, 2d; beds, 2d; fodder for
horses, 10d. The four servants staying alone sleep 2 nights for 1d.
Generally, all 7 spend 2d a night on beds; in London, it is 1d per head.
MISCELLANEOUS
Item Price Date Source Page
6 silver spoons 14s 1382 [2] 24
2 gold rings with diamonds L15 " " "
Gold Ring with ruby 26s 8d " " "
3 strings of pearls 70s " " "
6 gold necklaces 100s " " "
Fee to enroll an apprentice:
with mercers (rich merchants) 2s 14 cen [2] 111
with carpenters 1s " " "
Fee to join guild at end of
apprenticeship:
with mercers 20s " [2] 111
with carpenters 3s 4d " " "
Fee to join guild 6s 8d-L3 14 cen(?) [3] 208
Fee to gain freedom of a town
(to enjoy its exemption from
feudal duties, I assume) 3s 4d-20s 14 cen(?0 [3] 208
To empty a cesspit in a city 6s 8d 15 cen(?) [3] 209
Candles
Somerset 1.5d/lb 1338 [3] 210
London 2d-2.5d/lb " " "
Candles
tallow 1.5d/lb 15 cen(?) [3] 74
wax 6.5d/lb 1406-1407 " "
Vat 4d 1457 [3] 170
Barrel 3d " " "
Cask 8d each 1300-1305 [10] 45
Sea Coal 1d/bushel 1300-1305 [10] 45
Bottle 4d " " "
2 buckets 1s " " "
1 sheet 4d " " "
1 mattress 2d " " "
4 pillows 4d " " "
3 boards for a bed 4d " " "
2 sheets, 4 blankets 5s 8p 1349-1352 " "
16 bedspreads, 20 sheets,
8 featherbeds L3 1s 1285-1290 [3] 206
Duke's bed of cloth of gold,
with blue satin canopy L182 3s 1397 [3] 77
Table 6d 1457 [3] 170
Chair 3d " " "
Chest with necessaries thereto 2s 2d " " "
2 chests 6d each " " "
Metal ewer 6d 1349-1352 " "
Brass pot 2s " " "
Basin and ewer 8d " " "
Basin and ewer 2s 8d " " "
Towel 6d " " "
Coffer 1s " " "
2 stools 8d " " "
Ceramic cooking pot .5d 1340s " 174
Spanish iron in England 1s 6d/24 lb 1436 [5] 39
Steel L32/ton 1622 [5] 39
Note: most of these come from inventories of peasants' belongings. The
fine goods would be more expensive.
Note about lighting: great houses could use 100 lb of wax and tallow in a
single winter night ([3], p. 74). Others, not as rich, would go to sleep
earlier.
WAGES
Profession Wage Date Source Page
Mercenaries:
knight banneret 4s/day 1316 [4] 78
knight 2s/day " " "
man-at-arms or squire 1s/day " " "
Regular Army
Esquires, constables, and
centenars 1s/day 1346 [4] 79
Mounted archers, armored
infantry, hobilars,
vintenars 6d/day " " "
Welsh vintenars 4d/day " " "
Archers 3d/day " " "
Welsh infantry 2d/day " " "
Captain 8s/day late 16 cen [4] 181
Lieutenant 4s/day " " "
Ensign 2s/day " " "
Drummer or trumpeter 20d/day " " "
cavalryman 18d/day " " "
infantry 8d/day " " "
Laborer L2/year max c1300 [3] 29
Crown revenues (at peace) L30 000 c1300 " "
Barons per year L200-500+ c1300 " "
Earls per year L400-L11000 c1300 " "
Sergeant at Law (top lawyer) L300/year 1455 " 47
Chief armorer 26s 8d/month 1544 [5] 182
Other armorers in same shop 24s/month 1544 " "
except "Old Martyn" who made 38s 10d/month 1544 " "
Apprentices in same shop 6d/day 1544 " "
Armorer 18d/week 1287-1305 [10] 44
Crossbow repairer 14d/week 1287-1305 [10] 44
Plumber 3d/day 1287-1305 [10] 44
Master mason 4d/day 1351 [2] 24
Master carpenter 3d/day " " "
Carpenters' Guild stipend to
a sick member 14d/week 1333 [2] 156
Weavers 5d/day, no 1407 [2] 146
food
Chantry priest per year L4 13s 4d 1379 [2] 24
Squires per annum 13s 4d-L1 14 cen [1] 116-117
Carters, porters, falconers 5s-8s 8d 14 cen [1] 116-117
grooms, messengers per year
Kitchen servants 2s-4s/year 14 cen [1] 116-117
Boys and pages 1s-6s/year 14 cen [1] 116-117
Wardens of London Bridges L10/year 1382 [2] 128
Note: sheriffs of London paid 300L per year, hoping to make a profit from
the fines they collected.
Note: 30 adult sheep could produce about 20s of wool per year in 1299
([3], p. 114).
Note: To get a VERY ROUGH sense of money, I reproduce the following chart
from Dyer ([3], p. 206). These are averages of daily wages in pence.
Decade Thatcher Thatcher's mate
1261-70 2 -
1271-80 2.5 1
1281-90 2.25 1
1291-1300 2.5 1
1301-10 2.5 1
1311-20 3 1.25
1321-30 3 1
1331-40 3 1.25
1341-50 3 1.25
1351-60 3.5 2
1361-70 3.5 2
1371-80 4.25 2.5
1381-90 4 2.25
1391-1400 4.25 2.75
1401-10 4.5 3
1411-20 4.75 3
1421-30 4.5 3
1431-40 4.5 3.25
1441-50 5.25 4
1451-60 5.5 3.25
1461-70 4.75 3.75
1471-80 5.25 3.75
1481-90 6 3.75
1491-1500 5.5 3.5
1501-10 5.75 4
1511-20 5.25 4
SOURCES
[1] _English Wayfaring Life in the XIVth Century_, J. J. Jusserand, trans
Lucy Smith, Putnam's Sons, New York,1931 (Orig. 1889).
[2] _London in the Age of Chaucer_, A. R. Myers, University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman, 1972
[3] _Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages_, Christopher Dyer,
Cambridge University Press, 1989
[4] _English Weapons & Warfare, 449-1660_, A. V. B. Norman and Don
Pottinger, Barnes & Noble, 1992 (orig. 1966)
[5] _The Armourer and his Craft from the XIth to the XVIth Century_,
Charles ffoulkes, Dover, 1988 (orig. 1912)
[6] "The Cost of Castle Building: The Case of the Tower at Langeais,"
Bernard Bachrach, in _The Medieval Castle: Romance and Reality_, ed.
Kathryn Reyerson and Faye Powe, Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, Iowa, 1984
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